In contrast to the view that the gender border crossings in postmodern fashion represent a transcendence of gender boundaries, I argue then, that these have not disappeared, but have simply been renegotiated. Despite the increasing frequency of gender border crossings in recent times, gender distinctions have not disappeared, but continue to reassert themselves, even if in slightly new forms. The result of such cross gender borrowings has not been the undermining of the categories of femininity and masculinity, but rather, their reconfiguration. This can be seen, for instance, in the way in which fragrances have been marketed to men. While the marketing to men of what was once a quintessentially feminine item may seem indicative of the dissolution of gender boundaries, the promotion of male fragrances has been done in such a way as to reassure men of their masculinity. Thus, such advertisements abound with signifiers of traditional masculinity to counter any fears of emasculation attendant upon the use of a traditionally feminine product. Firstly, the very designation of the product seeks to differentiate it from the female version, being commonly referred to as "fragrance," "cologne," "eau-de-toilette," or "aftershave," rather than "perfume."
There is also careful styling of the container of the fragrance to give it a more masculine appearance. Generally speaking, cologne bottles for men tend to be chunkier in appearance than are the containers for women's perfumes, as well as having a more pared back, minimalist look. Even in the case of the recent trend toward the unisex marketing of fragrances such as Calvin Klein's One, the product continues to be "masculine" in its look (in this case, resembling a hip flask), so as not to alienate the male segment of the market. Also, men's fragrances are frequently associated with traditionally manly outdoor activities, such as sailing or athletics, to reassure the man using the product of his masculinity, or are displayed in conjunction with a professional man in a business suit who radiates an air of authority and confidence in his masculinity, as exemplified by recent advertisements for Hugo Boss men's fragrance. Similarly, while there are an increasing number of advertisements promoting fashion and personal care products to the male consumer, in which men are portrayed in a quasi-feminine position as the object of the gaze, at the same time, this is counterbalanced by the inclusion of elements that remind us of the masculinity of the models depicted.
This is exemplified by a number of recent Calvin Klein underwear advertisements. In these advertisements, the demeanor of the male models is somewhat "feminine" in that they adopt body postures more commonly associated with the female nude-either reclining or standing languidly, with the body displaying a sinuous line calculated to invite the desirous gaze of the spectator. In these advertisements, the models do not stare at the viewer challengingly or belligerently, as do many of the models in earlier advertisements for male underwear, but have an averted or nonthreatening gaze. Their torsos are also smooth and hairless like a woman's body. At the same time, however, signs of traditional masculinity are still present to reassure us of their masculinity. Thus, the models are typically well muscled, projecting an air of strength and solidity, despite their apparent passivity. They are also well endowed, as the body hugging underwear makes clear, and their hair is often slightly disheveled, indicating a rugged masculinity that is not overly narcissistic. Even in advertisements where there seem to be a more overtly ironic play with the signs of masculinity, as in some of the fashion spreads in The Face, ultimately, the masculinity of the subject is never in doubt.
For example, in a fashion spread from The Face, a young male model is depicted exhibiting a combination of boyishness and a "tough," assertive masculinity. The styling of the clothes brings together a collision course of signifiers in which cycling shorts are teamed up with "feminine" elements, including a pink, sleeveless top, pink cap, and white gloves. However, while the mixing up of conventional signifiers of masculinity and femininity suggests an ironic play with the conventional signs of gender, ultimately what is presented is a variant of masculinity rather than a transcendence of it. This is indicated by the emphasis on the muscularity and physicality of the model's body, which is posed in a quasi-boxing stance. The stubble on his face also gives him a look of rugged masculinity. Thus, despite the inclusion of some "feminine" elements, the look is still very masculine, "hard" and "street."
This continues to be evident in more recent issues of The Face, for instance, the fashion spread, "Black Joe: He's the Driller Queen, Gunpowder and Gelatine, Dynamite with a Laser Beam," which appeared in the September 1999 issue. Here, there is a disruption of traditional notions of masculinity, caused by the fact that the male model, who appears as a middle-aged oilrig worker named "Black Joe," is wearing designer dresses. However, despite this dramatic rupture of convention, ultimately, the images do not pose a serious threat to masculinity because of the hypermasculine context within which these garments are "modeled." Black Joe does not pose in a self-conscious way for the camera, but is depicted going about his daily business on the oilrig-an industry which is overwhelmingly masculine. As well as being depicted carrying out "manly" tasks, his physique is clearly masculine in its bulk, hairiness, and confident demeanor. The dresses themselves have the look of having suffered the consequences of the heavy labor in which the wearer has been engaged, with one in particular featuring numerous holes and torn and frayed edges. Furthermore, they are teamed with obviously male signifiers, such as heavy work boots, a hardhat, and safety goggles.
Conversely, despite the masculinization of aspects of women's appearance over the last few decades, this has not resulted in an undermining of femininity, but rather, in its modification to incorporate these new elements. Thus, for example, while slimness has been a long-standing ideal for women, in recent times, this has been modified to incorporate a firmer, well-toned look. As Bordo points out, it is no longer considered sufficient for women to be slender, but they must also avoid being flabby-a look which can best be achieved by "working out" or engaging in some form of athletic activity. Whereas in the past, it was considered "unfeminine" for women to engage in strenuous physical activity, now such exercise is no longer a male prerogative.
Developing one's muscle tone is now acceptable for women, though the degree of muscle bulk considered appropriate for women is still less than that deemed attractive in men. Thus, while women's bodies are, in some respects, becoming more like men's through fitness training (which not only increases muscle tone but can also decrease the size of the breasts), gender distinctions are still maintained through the different amount of muscle bulk allowable in each case. Likewise, while women have incorporated masculine elements into their dress, this has, in many instances, been seen to actually enhance their femininity rather than detract from it. As Steele points out, androgynous touches have traditionally been employed in fashion to heighten, not to desexualize, the erotic allure of women's clothing. A case in point was the adoption of top hat and tails by Marlene Dietrich during the 1930s in films such as Morocco. This was later taken up by Yves Saint Laurent in several of his collections during the 1960s, '70s, and '80s, where female models donned men's formal, black-tie evening wear, teamed with frilly lace, crêpe, or see-through chiffon blouses. A clear indication of the erotic allure associated with the female tuxedo can be seen in a recent example that appeared in Vogue Australia, where the commentary suggests that while ". . . a frock invites cooing compliments from other women . . . in a tux, the frank invitation of a sliver of naked décolletage framed by black satin revers will render men speechless". Even in situations where the intention has been to downplay a woman's sexuality through the masculinization of her dress, as in the adoption of the business suit by women, the result has not been a loss of femininity on the part of the wearer.
For at the same time as women have taken on the sobriety of the professional male's garb, they frequently "soften" its masculinity through the incorporation of more "feminine" elements, such as a frilly blouse made of sensuous material, a colorful scarf, jewelry, and highheeled shoes. Likewise, the Annie Hall look popular during the 1970s, where women dressed themselves in oversized male-styled garments did not undermine their femininity. As Davis points out, at the same time as the garments constituting this "look" were masculine in their style and choice of materials, the fact that they were grossly oversized served to undercut any serious claims to masculinity. Dwarfed by such large garments, women were imbued with the appearance of childlike innocence and vulnerability combined with an element of clownishness as the look suggested a small child playing dress-up.
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1. A particular type of masculine identity
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